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Freshwater algae show low-to-moderate susceptibility to TiO₂ exposure, with more pronounced toxic effects in the presence of UV irradiation. It has also been shown that nano-sized TiO₂ is significantly more toxic to algae Pseudokirchneriella sub-capitata than submicron-sized TiO₂. Hund-Rinke and Simon  reported that UV irradiated 25 nm TiO₂ NPs are more toxic to green freshwater algae Desmodesmus subspicatus than UV irradiated 50 nm particles, which is in agreement with Hartmann et al. UV irradiated TiO₂ NPs also inactivated other algae species such as Anabaena, Microcystis, Melsoira and Chroococcus. It was demonstrated that smaller particles have a greater potential to penetrate the cell interior than submicron-sized particles and larger aggregates. Studies have shown that the amount of TiO₂ adsorbed on algal cells can be up to 2.3 times their own weight.

What is an exposure route? 

As a widely used substance with multiple applications, research is being carried out to improve the production process to reduce the levels of chemicals used and waste produced, and to recycle any by-products.

BaSO4 + 4C=BaS + 4CO