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Over the last several years, nanoparticles have come under scrutiny for adverse health effects. Nanoparticles are ultrafine particles between 1 to 100 nanometers in diameter. (To put this in perspective, the average human hair is around 80,000 nanometers thick.) Because of their size, which can be engineered and manipulated at the atomic or molecular level, nanoparticles exhibit unique physical, chemical, and biological properties. Titanium dioxide is one of the most commonly produced nanoparticles in the world.

The trouble with titanium dioxide, by Siloam Springs Regional Hospital, Herald Leader, October 4, 2023

Lyophilized vitamins@P25TiO₂NPs were obtained through the described methods with excellent reproducibility and yield: over 99% of initial P25TiO₂NPs were functionalized.