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In order to evaluate the penetration of the nanoparticles, eight adult male Wistar rats (3 months old) were used for the in vivo experiments. The protocol was approved by the local University Committee for animal testing and is in accordance with the Canadian Council on Animal Care (CICUAL-RD-2021–892-E-UNC-DEC#FCQ).

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles have also been found in human placentae and in infant meconium, indicating its ability to be transferred from mother to fetus. 

Titanium dioxide is the most widely used whitening pigment in the world and has been linked to adverse health effects, particularly genotoxicity and intestinal inflammation. It is applied as food coloring and a whitening agent to a wide variety of foods, including chewing gum, cakes, candies, breads and ice cream. 

Lithopone is a white pigment that is commonly used in a variety of industries, including the paint, plastic, and rubber industries. With 30% of the world's lithopone factories located in China, the country plays a significant role in the production and supply of this important chemical compound.